sciresНаучные исследования экономического факультета. Электронный журналScientific Research of Faculty of Economics. Electronic Journal2078-3809Moscow State University10.38050/2078-3809-2022-14-3-100-126scires-227Research ArticleПОВЕДЕНЧЕСКАЯ ЭКОНОМИКАBehavioural EconomicsНарушения экономической рациональности из-за неактуальности информации при обучении в принятии решений на основе опыта (перевод с англ. Белецкая М.Ю.)Violations of economic rationality due to irrelevant information during learning in decision from experience (trans. from Eng. Beletskaya, M. Yu.)СпекторМ. С.SpektorM. S.

Спектор Михаил С.

Барселонская школа экономики, департамент экономики и бизнеса

г. Барселона

Mikhail S. Spektor

Barcelona School of Economics, Department of Economics and Business

Barcelona

ЗайдлерХ.SeidlerH.

Зайдлер Ханна

департамент экономики и управления

г. Карлсруэ

Hannah Seidler

Department of Economics and Management

Karlsruhe

Университет Помпеу ФабраИспанияPompeu Fabra UniversitySpainТехнологический институт КарлсруэГерманияKarlsruhe Institute of TechnologyGermany202216102022143100126Copyright © Спектор М.С., Зайдлер Х., 20222022Спектор М.С., Зайдлер Х.Spektor M.S., Seidler H.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://scires.elpub.ru/jour/article/view/227

Согласно нормативным теориям принятия решений, состав набора выбора не должен влиять на предпочтения людей в отношении различных вариантов. Это предположение контрастирует с десятилетиями исследований, выявивших множество ситуаций, в которых этот принцип нарушается, что приводит к эффектам контекста. Недавно исследования эффектов контекста были расширены на область выбора, основанного на опыте, где было показано, что упущенные результаты нерелевантных альтернатив влияют на предпочтения – эффект акцентуации. В частности, было показано, что вариант, представленный в ситуации, в которой его результаты значимы в нескольких испытаниях, оценивается более положительно, чем в контексте, в котором его результаты менее значимы. В настоящей работе исследовалось, влияет ли нерелевантная информация на предпочтения так же сильно, как релевантная информация. В двух экспериментах люди выполняли учебную задачу с частичной обратной связью. Было обнаружено, что прошлые результаты невыбранных вариантов, которые вообще не содержат релевантной информации, приводили к тому же эффекту акцентуации, что и контрфактические результаты, которые давали новую и релевантную информацию. Однако, если информация была совершенно нерелевантной (из вариантов, которые не могли быть выбраны), люди игнорировали ее, тем самым исключая чисто перцептивное объяснение эффекта акцентуации. Эти результаты обеспечивают дополнительную поддержку влияния значимости на обучение и подчеркивают необходимость механистических подходов в исследованиях, связанных с принятием решений.

According to normative decision-making theories, the composition of a choice set should not affect people’s preferences regarding the different options. This assumption contrasts with decades of research that have identified multiple situations in which this principle is violated, leading to context effects. Recently, research on context effects has been extended to the domain of experiencebased choices, where it has been shown that forgone outcomes from irrelevant alternatives affect preferences — an accentuation effect. More specifically, it has been shown that an option presented in a situation in which its outcomes are salient across several trials is evaluated more positively than in a context in which its outcomes are less salient. In the present study, we investigated whether irrelevant information affects preferences as much as relevant information. In two experiments, individuals completed a learning task with partial feedback. We found that past outcomes from nonchosen options, which contain no relevant information at all, led to the same accentuation effect as did counterfactual outcomes that provided new and relevant information. However, if the information is entirely irrelevant (from options that could not have been chosen), individuals ignored it, thus ruling out a purely perceptual account of the accentuation effect. These results provide further support for the influence of salience on learning and highlight the necessity of mechanistic accounts in decision-making research.

эффект акцентуацииэффекты контекстапринятие решенийрешения на основе опытаобучение с подкреплениемaccentuation effectcontext effectsdecision makingdecisions from experiencereinforcement learningМихаил Спектор выражает благодарность за финансовую поддержку Испанского государственного исследовательского агентства (AEI) в рамках программы Severo Ochoa для центров передового опыта в области исследований и разработок (CEX2019-000915-S), Министерства экономики и цифровой трансформации Испании (MINECO) через стипендию Juan de la Cierva la Cierva (FJC2019-040970-I), Министерство науки и инноваций Испании (MICINN; проект PID2019-105249GB-I00) и Фонд BBVA (проект G999088Q).ReferencesBerkowitsch N.A.J., Scheibehenne B., Rieskamp J. Rigorously testing multialternative decision field theory against random utility models // Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2014. No. 143 (3). P. 1331–1348: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035159.Berkowitsch N.A.J., Scheibehenne B., Rieskamp J. Rigorously testing multialternative decision field theory against random utility models // Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2014. No. 143 (3). P. 1331–1348: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035159.Bernoulli D. Exposition of a new theory on the measurement of risk // Econometrica. 1954. No. 22(1). P. 23–36: https://doi.org/10.2307/1909829.Bernoulli D. Exposition of a new theory on the measurement of risk // Econometrica. 1954. No. 22(1). P. 23–36: https://doi.org/10.2307/1909829.Bordalo P., Gennaioli N., Shleifer A. Salience theory of choice under risk // The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2012. No. 127 (3). P. 1243–1285: https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjs018.Bordalo P., Gennaioli N., Shleifer A. Salience theory of choice under risk // The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2012. No. 127 (3). P. 1243–1285: https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjs018.Busemeyer J.R., Gluth S., Rieskamp J., Turner B.M. Cognitive and neural bases of multi-attribute, multi-alternative, value-based decisions // Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2019. No. 23 (3). P. 251–263: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.12.003.Busemeyer J.R., Gluth S., Rieskamp J., Turner B.M. Cognitive and neural bases of multi-attribute, multi-alternative, value-based decisions // Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2019. No. 23 (3). P. 251–263: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.12.003.Cavanagh J.F., Wiecki T.V., Kochar A., Frank M.J. Eye tracking and pupillometry are indicators of dissociable latent decision processes // Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2014. No. 143 (4). P. 1476–1488: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035813.Cavanagh J.F., Wiecki T.V., Kochar A., Frank M.J. Eye tracking and pupillometry are indicators of dissociable latent decision processes // Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2014. No. 143 (4). P. 1476–1488: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035813.Erev I., Roth, A.E. Maximization, learning, and economic behavior // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2014. No. 111 (Supplement 3). P. 10818-10825: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1402846111.Erev I., Roth, A.E. Maximization, learning, and economic behavior // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2014. No. 111 (Supplement 3). P. 10818-10825: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1402846111.Ert E., Lejarraga, T. The effect of experience on context-dependent decisions // Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 2018. No. 31 (4). P. 535–546: https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.2064.Ert E., Lejarraga, T. The effect of experience on context-dependent decisions // Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 2018. No. 31 (4). P. 535–546: https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.2064.Gelman A., Carlin J.B., Stern H.S., Dunson D.B., Vehtari A., Rubin D.B. Bayesian data analysis. 3rd ed. CRC Press, 2013.Gelman A., Carlin J.B., Stern H.S., Dunson D.B., Vehtari A., Rubin D.B. Bayesian data analysis. 3rd ed. CRC Press, 2013.Gluth S., Spektor M.S., Rieskamp J. Value-based attentional capture affects multi-alternative decision making // eLife. 2018. No. 7. P. 1–36: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.39659.Gluth S., Spektor M.S., Rieskamp J. Value-based attentional capture affects multi-alternative decision making // eLife. 2018. No. 7. P. 1–36: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.39659.Gonzalez C., Dutt V. Instance-based learning: Integrating sampling and repeated decisions from experience // Psychological Review. 2011. No. 118 (4). P. 523–551: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024558.Gonzalez C., Dutt V. Instance-based learning: Integrating sampling and repeated decisions from experience // Psychological Review. 2011. No. 118 (4). P. 523–551: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024558.Hadar L., Danziger S., Hertwig R. The attraction effect in experience-based decisions // Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 2018. No. 31 (3). P. 461–468: https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.2058.Hadar L., Danziger S., Hertwig R. The attraction effect in experience-based decisions // Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 2018. No. 31 (3). P. 461–468: https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.2058.Herne K. The effects of decoy gambles on individual choice // Experimental Economics. 1999. No. 2. P. 31–40: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009925731240.Herne K. The effects of decoy gambles on individual choice // Experimental Economics. 1999. No. 2. P. 31–40: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009925731240.Hertwig R., Erev I. The description-experience gap in risky choice // Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2009. No. 13 (12). P. 517–523: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.09.004.Hertwig R., Erev I. The description-experience gap in risky choice // Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2009. No. 13 (12). P. 517–523: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.09.004.Huber J., Payne J. W., Puto C.P. Adding asymmetrically dominated alternatives: Violations of regularity and the similarity hypothesis // Journal of Consumer Research. 1982. No. 9 (1). P. 90–98: https://doi.org/10.1086/208899.Huber J., Payne J. W., Puto C.P. Adding asymmetrically dominated alternatives: Violations of regularity and the similarity hypothesis // Journal of Consumer Research. 1982. No. 9 (1). P. 90–98: https://doi.org/10.1086/208899.Kahneman D., Tversky A. Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk // Econometrica. 1979. No. 47 (2). P. 263–292: https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185.Kahneman D., Tversky A. Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk // Econometrica. 1979. No. 47 (2). P. 263–292: https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185.Kellen D. A model hierarchy for psychological science // Computational Brain & Behavior. 2019. No. 2 (3-4). P. 160–165: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42113-019-00037-y.Kellen D. A model hierarchy for psychological science // Computational Brain & Behavior. 2019. No. 2 (3-4). P. 160–165: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42113-019-00037-y.Kool W., Cushman F.A., Gershman S.J. When does model-based control pay off? // PLOS Computational Biology. 2016. No. 12 (8). e1005090: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005090.Kool W., Cushman F.A., Gershman S.J. When does model-based control pay off? // PLOS Computational Biology. 2016. No. 12 (8). e1005090: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005090.Luce R.D. Individual choice behavior: A theoretical analysis. Wiley, 1959.Luce R.D. Individual choice behavior: A theoretical analysis. Wiley, 1959.Muller-Trede J., Sher S., McKenzie C.R.M. Transitivity in context: A rational analysis of intransitive choice and context-sensitive preference // Decision. 2015. No. 2 (4). P. 280–305: https://doi.org/10.1037/dec0000037.Muller-Trede J., Sher S., McKenzie C.R.M. Transitivity in context: A rational analysis of intransitive choice and context-sensitive preference // Decision. 2015. No. 2 (4). P. 280–305: https://doi.org/10.1037/dec0000037.Navarro D.J., Newell B.R., Schulze, C. Learning and choosing in an uncertain world: An investigation of the explore-exploit dilemma in static and dynamic environments // Cognitive Psychology. 2016. No. 85. P. 43–77: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2016.01.001.Navarro D.J., Newell B.R., Schulze, C. Learning and choosing in an uncertain world: An investigation of the explore-exploit dilemma in static and dynamic environments // Cognitive Psychology. 2016. No. 85. P. 43–77: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2016.01.001.Noguchi T., Stewart N. Multialternative decision by sampling: A model of decision making constrained by process data // Psychological Review. 2018. No. 125 (4). P. 512–544: https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000102.Noguchi T., Stewart N. Multialternative decision by sampling: A model of decision making constrained by process data // Psychological Review. 2018. No. 125 (4). P. 512–544: https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000102.Palminteri S., Khamassi M., Joffily M., Coricelli G. Contextual modulation of value signals in reward and punishment learning // Nature Communications. 2015. No. 6 (1). P. 8096: https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9096.Palminteri S., Khamassi M., Joffily M., Coricelli G. Contextual modulation of value signals in reward and punishment learning // Nature Communications. 2015. No. 6 (1). P. 8096: https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9096.Plonsky O., Erev I. Learning in settings with partial feedback and the wavy recency effect of rare events // Cognitive Psychology. 2017. No. 93. T. 18–43: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2017.01.002.Plonsky O., Erev I. Learning in settings with partial feedback and the wavy recency effect of rare events // Cognitive Psychology. 2017. No. 93. T. 18–43: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2017.01.002.Rakow T., Newell B.R., Wright, L. Forgone but not forgotten: The effects of partial and full feedback in “harsh” and “kind” environments // Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2015. No. 22 (6). P. 1807–1813: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0848-x.Rakow T., Newell B.R., Wright, L. Forgone but not forgotten: The effects of partial and full feedback in “harsh” and “kind” environments // Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2015. No. 22 (6). P. 1807–1813: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0848-x.Rieskamp J., Busemeyer J.R., Mellers B.A. Extending the bounds of rationality: Evidence and theories of preferential choice // Journal of Economic Literature. 2006. No. 44 (3). P. 631–661: https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.44.3.631.Rieskamp J., Busemeyer J.R., Mellers B.A. Extending the bounds of rationality: Evidence and theories of preferential choice // Journal of Economic Literature. 2006. No. 44 (3). P. 631–661: https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.44.3.631.Roe R.M., Busemeyer J.R., Townsend J.T. Multialternative decision field theory: A dynamic connectionist model of decision making // Psychological Review. 2001. No. 108 (2). P. 370–392: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.370.Roe R.M., Busemeyer J.R., Townsend J.T. Multialternative decision field theory: A dynamic connectionist model of decision making // Psychological Review. 2001. No. 108 (2). P. 370–392: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.370.Schultz W., Dayan P., Montague P.R. A neural substrate of prediction and reward // Science. 1997. No. 275 (5306). P. 1593–1599: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5306.1593.Schultz W., Dayan P., Montague P.R. A neural substrate of prediction and reward // Science. 1997. No. 275 (5306). P. 1593–1599: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5306.1593.Simonson I. Choice based on reasons: The case of attraction and compromise effects // Journal of Consumer Research. 1989. No. 16 (2). P. 158–174: https://doi.org/10.1086/209205.Simonson I. Choice based on reasons: The case of attraction and compromise effects // Journal of Consumer Research. 1989. No. 16 (2). P. 158–174: https://doi.org/10.1086/209205.Soltani A., De Martino B., Camerer C. A range-normalization model of context-dependent choice: A new model and evidence // PLOS Computational Biology. 2012. No. 8 (7). P. 1–15: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002607.Soltani A., De Martino B., Camerer C. A range-normalization model of context-dependent choice: A new model and evidence // PLOS Computational Biology. 2012. No. 8 (7). P. 1–15: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002607.Spektor M.S., Bhatia S., Gluth S. The elusiveness of context effects in decision making // Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2021. No. 25 (10). P. 844–857: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.07.011.Spektor M.S., Bhatia S., Gluth S. The elusiveness of context effects in decision making // Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2021. No. 25 (10). P. 844–857: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.07.011.Spektor M.S., Gluth S., Fontanesi L., Rieskamp, J. How similarity between choice options affects decisions from experience: The accentuation-of-differences model // Psychological Review. 2019. No. 126. P. 52–88: https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000122.Spektor M.S., Gluth S., Fontanesi L., Rieskamp, J. How similarity between choice options affects decisions from experience: The accentuation-of-differences model // Psychological Review. 2019. No. 126. P. 52–88: https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000122.Sutton R.S., Barto A.G. Reinforcement learning: An introduction. MIT Press, 1998.Sutton R.S., Barto A.G. Reinforcement learning: An introduction. MIT Press, 1998.Szollosi A., Newell B.R. People as intuitive scientists: Reconsidering statistical explanations of decision making // Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2020. No. 24 (12). P. 1008–1018: https://doi.org/10.1016/jdics.2020.09.005.Szollosi A., Newell B.R. People as intuitive scientists: Reconsidering statistical explanations of decision making // Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2020. No. 24 (12). P. 1008–1018: https://doi.org/10.1016/jdics.2020.09.005.Trueblood J.S., Brown S.D., Heathcote A., Busemeyer J.R. Not just for consumers: Context effects are fundamental to decision making // Psychological Science. 2013. No. 24 (6). P. 901–908: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612464241.Trueblood J.S., Brown S.D., Heathcote A., Busemeyer J.R. Not just for consumers: Context effects are fundamental to decision making // Psychological Science. 2013. No. 24 (6). P. 901–908: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612464241.Tversky A. Elimination by aspects: A theory of choice // Psychological Review. 1972. No. 79 (4). P. 281–299: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0032955.Tversky A. Elimination by aspects: A theory of choice // Psychological Review. 1972. No. 79 (4). P. 281–299: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0032955.Tversky A., Kahneman D. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases // Science. 1974. No. 185 (4157). P. 1124–1131: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124.Tversky A., Kahneman D. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases // Science. 1974. No. 185 (4157). P. 1124–1131: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124.Vehtari A., Gelman A., Gabry J. Practical Bayesian model evaluation using leave-one-out crossvalidation and WAIC // Statistics and Computing. 2017. No. 27 (5). P. 1413–1432: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11222-016-9696-4.Vehtari A., Gelman A., Gabry J. Practical Bayesian model evaluation using leave-one-out crossvalidation and WAIC // Statistics and Computing. 2017. No. 27 (5). P. 1413–1432: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11222-016-9696-4.Von Neumann J., Morgenstern O. Theory of games and economic behavior. 2nd ed. MIT Press, 1947.Von Neumann J., Morgenstern O. Theory of games and economic behavior. 2nd ed. MIT Press, 1947.Wedell D.H. Distinguishing among models of contextually induced preference reversals // Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 1991. No. 17 (4). P. 767–778: https://doi.org/10.1037//0278-7393.17.4.767.Wedell D.H. Distinguishing among models of contextually induced preference reversals // Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 1991. No. 17 (4). P. 767–778: https://doi.org/10.1037//0278-7393.17.4.767.Wulff D.U., Mergenthaler-Canseco M., Hertwig R. A meta-analytic review of two modes of learning and the description-experience gap // Psychological Bulletin. 2018. No. 144 (2). P. 140–176: https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000115.Wulff D.U., Mergenthaler-Canseco M., Hertwig R. A meta-analytic review of two modes of learning and the description-experience gap // Psychological Bulletin. 2018. No. 144 (2). P. 140–176: https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000115.Yechiam E., Busemeye, J.R. Comparison of basic assumptions embedded in learning models for experience-based decision making // Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2005. No. 12 (3). P. 387–402: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193783.Yechiam E., Busemeye, J.R. Comparison of basic assumptions embedded in learning models for experience-based decision making // Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2005. No. 12 (3). P. 387–402: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193783.Yechiam E., Rakow T. The effect of foregone outcomes on choices from experience // Experimental Psychology. 2012. No. 59 (2). P. 55–67: https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000126.Yechiam E., Rakow T. The effect of foregone outcomes on choices from experience // Experimental Psychology. 2012. No. 59 (2). P. 55–67: https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000126.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.